the way that can be named is mot the way unless toy know the way
Three gives birth to all things
Electricity is the byproduct of molecular oxidation redox
Molecular oxidation redox is the byproduct of electricity
In quantum chemistry, electronic structure is the state of motion of electrons in an electrostatic field created by stationary nuclei. The term encompasses both the wave functions of the electrons and the energies associated with them. Electronic structure is obtained by solving quantum mechanical equations for the aforementioned clamped-nuclei problem.
Electronic structure problems arise from the Born–Oppenheimer approximation. Along with nuclear dynamics, the electronic structure problem is one of the two steps in studying the quantum mechanical motion of a molecular system. Except for a small number of simple problems such as hydrogen-like atoms, the solution of electronic structure problems require modern computers.
Electronic structure problem is routinely solved with quantum chemistry computer programs. Electronic structure calculations rank among the most computationally intensive tasks in all scientific calculations. For this reason, quantum chemistry calculations take up significant shares on many scientific supercomputer facilities.
A number of methods to obtain electronic structures exist and their applicability varies from case to case.
Myelinated axons only allow action potentials to occur at the unmyelinated nodes of Ranvier that occur between the myelinated internodes. It is by this restriction that saltatory conduction propagates an action potential along the axon of a neuron at rates significantly higher than would be possible in unmyelinated axons (150 m/s compared to 0.5 to 10 m/s). As sodium rushes into the node it creates an electrical force which pushes on the ions already inside the axon. This rapid conduction of electrical signal reaches the next node and creates another action potential, thus refreshing the signal. In this manner, saltatory conduction allows electrical nerve signals to be propagated long distances at high rates without any degradation of the signal. Although the action potential appears to jump along the axon, this phenomenon is actually just the rapid conduction of the signal inside the myelinated portion of the axon. If the entire surface of an axon were insulated, action potentials could not be regenerated along the axon resulting in signal degradation.
Hilbert space
Generalization of Euclidean space allowing infinite dimensions
For the space-filling curve, see Hilbert curve.
In mathematics, Hilbert spaces (named after David Hilbert) allow generalizing the methods of linear algebra and calculus from (finite-dimensional) Euclidean vector spaces to spaces that may be infinite-dimensional. A Hilbert space is a vector space equipped with an inner product which defines a distance function for which it is a complete metric space. Hilbert spaces arise naturally and frequently in mathematics and physics, typically as function spaces.
Energy efficiencyPrinciple and mechanisms
Electrophysiology is the branch of physiology that pertains broadly to the flow of ions (ion current) in biological tissues and, in particular, to the electrical recording techniques that enable the measurement of this flow. Classical electrophysiology techniques involve placing electrodes into various preparations of biological tissue.
The principal types of electrodes are:
simple solid conductors, such as discs and needles (singles or arrays, often insulated except for the tip),
tracings on printed circuit boards or flexible polymers, also insulated except for the tip, and
hollow tubes filled with an electrolyte, such as glass pipettes filled with potassium chloride solution or another electrolyte solution.
The principal preparations include:
living organisms (example in insects),
excised tissue (acute or cultured),
dissociated cells from excised tissue (acute or cultured),
artificially grown cells or tissues, or
hybrids of the above.
Neuronal electrophysiology is the study of electrical properties of biological cells and tissues within the nervous system. With neuronal electrophysiology doctors and specialists can determine how neuronal disorders happen, by looking at the individual's brain activity. Activity such as which portions of the brain light up during any situations encountered. If an electrode is small enough (micrometers) in diameter, then the electrophysiologist may choose to insert the tip into a single cell. Such a configuration allows direct observation and intracellular recording of the intracellular electrical activity of a single cell. However, this invasive setup reduces the life of the cell and causes a leak of substances across the cell membrane. Intracellular activity may also be observed using a specially formed (hollow) glass pipette containing an electrolyte. In this technique, the microscopic pipette tip is pressed against the cell membrane, to which it tightly adheres by an interaction between glass and lipids of the cell membrane. The electrolyte within the pipette may be brought into fluid continuity with the cytoplasm by delivering a pulse of negative pressure to the pipette in order to rupture the small patch of membrane encircled by the pipette rim (whole-cell recording). Alternatively, ionic continuity may be established by "perforating" the patch by allowing exogenous pore-forming agent within the electrolyte to insert themselves into the membrane patch (perforated patch recording). Finally, the patch may be left intact (patch recording).
The electrophysiologist may choose notChromophore
Part of a molecule responsible for its color
A chromophore is the part of a molecule responsible for its color. The color that is seen by our eyes is the one reflected by the reflecting object within a certain wavelength spectrum of visible light. The chromophore is the electric signaling detecting region in the molecule where the energy difference between two separate molecular orbitals falls within the range of the visible spectrum of light. Visible light that heats the chromophore is thus absorbed when an electron from is its excited ground state into an excited excited state. In biological molecules that serve to capture or detect light energy, the chromophore is the moiety...Active moiety
In pharmacology, an active moiety is the part of a molecule or ion – excluding appended inactive portions – that is responsible for the physiological or pharmacological action of a drug substance. Inactive appended portions of the drug substance may include either the alcohol or acid moiety of an ester, a salt (including a salt with hydrogen or coordination bonds), or other noncovalent derivative (such as a complex, chelate, or clathrate). The parent drug may itself be an inactive prodrug and only after the active moiety is released from the parent in free form does it become active.thatt causes a conformational change in the molecule when hit by light.
Quantum chemistry
Chemistry based on quantum physics
Quantum chemistry, also called molecular quantum mechanics, is a branch of physical chemistry focused on the application of quantum mechanics to chemical systems, particularly towards the quantum-mechanical calculation of electronic contributions to physical and chemical properties of molecules, materials, and solutions at the atomic level. These calculations include systematically applied approximations intended to make calculations computationally feasible while still capturing as much information about important contributions to the computed wave functions as well as to observable properties such as structures, spectra, and thermodynamic properties. Quantum chemistry is also concerned with the computation of quantum effects on molecular dynamics and chemical kinetics.
Chemists rely heavily on spectroscopy through which information regarding the quantization of energy on a molecular scale can be obtained. Common methods are infra-red (IR) spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and scanning probe microscopy. Quantum chemistry may be applied to the prediction and verification of spectroscopic data as well as other experimental data.
Many quantum chemistry studies are focused on the electronic ground state and excited states of individual atoms and molecules as well as the study of reaction pathways and transition states that occur during chemical reactions. Spectroscopic properties may also be predicted. Typically, such studies assume the electronic wave function is adiabatically parameterized by the nuclear positions (i.e., the Born–Oppenheimer approximation). A wide variety of approaches are used, including semi-empirical methods, density functional theory, Hartree-Fock calculations, quantum Monte Carlo methods, and coupled cluster methods.
Understanding electronic structure and molecular dynamics through the development of computational solutions to the Schrödinger equation is a central goal of quantum chemistry. Progress in the field depends on overcoming several challenges, including the need to increase the accuracy of the results for small molecular systems, and to also increase the size of large molecules that can be realistically subjected to computation, which is limited by scaling considerations — the computation time increases as a power of the number of atoms.
History
Milankovitch cycle
Milankovitch cycles are three ways the Earth's orbit around the Sun changes over the course of tens of thousands of years. Each of the three, eccentricity, axial tilt and precession all influence how much solar energy hits the Earth. This change has been a major factor controlling periods of glaciation and seasons.[1] These cycles were discovered and mathematically developed by after astrophysicist Milutin Milankovitch. The three components once calculated together, predict and show the amount of solar radiation the Earth receives thus predicting and portraying the advances and retreats of Earth’s glaciers through time.[2]
The Three Variations
Eccentricity
Eccentricity [3]
Eccentricity is the path of Earth’s orbit around the sun. Over a period of 100,000 years, this varies from low eccentricity to higher eccentricity (it never gets too eccentric). A low eccentric shape means the Earth will travel around the Sun in a more circular fashion with either none or a very low percent difference between it’s farthest distance (aphelion) from the Sun to its closest distance (perihelion). Earth is currently in the low eccentric shape of about 3 percent distance between the aphelion and perihelion, this converts to about an average of 7 percent more solar radiation in the Southern hemisphere over the Northern hemisphere. A high eccentric shape means the Earth will travel around the Sun in a more oval shape with one side of the oval being closer to the Sun and a difference of 10 percent between the aphelion and perihelion. This would affect the hemispheres greatly by creating a 25 percent difference in solar radiation between the Southern and Northern hemispheres.[1][4]
Axial Tilt
Axial Tilt [3]
Axial tilt or obliquity is the angle of Earth’s axis from the orbital plane. The tilt changes from a range of 22.1 to 24.5 degrees over a period of a 41,000-year cycle. This small change in degree affects our seasons greatly. Earth is currently sitting at 23.5 degrees, which results in our warm summers and cool winters. At 24.5 degrees our seasons would be much more extreme, winters being much colder and summers much warmer. At 22.1 degrees, our seasons would be less severe, winters would be a bit warmer resulting in an increase of humidity and our summers would then be cooler causing the ice sheets to melt at a much slower pace. The minimal melting in the summer and the accumulation of humidity in the winter would then encourage a growth in ice sheets.[1][5]
Precession
Precession [3]
Precession is the gradual shift of Earth’s rotational axis, which controls the timing of our seasons. This can also be described as a dreidel wobbling moments before it falls. This affects the dates at which perihelion and aphelion occur. This wobble is a 26,000-year cycle in which the celestial pole will face a different north star. Our current North Star is Polaris but when the pole shifts, the North Star has and will be Vega. This slight shift in direction causes the winter and summer solstices to reverse. As our precession changes, our winters begin later and our summers last longer.[1][4]
If one must hazard a guess...CHx breaks up as COx breaks down resulting in
He h H2O Nacl and who know what sort of electric mess
sediment strata.
Materials taken from the Earth have been studied to infer the cycles of past climate. Antarctic ice cores contain trapped air bubbles whose ratios of different oxygen isotopes are a reliable proxy for global temperatures around the time the ice was formed. Study of this data concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis.
Analysis of deep-ocean cores and of lake depths, and a seminal paper by Hays, Imbrie, and Shackleton provide additional validation through physical evidence. Climate records contained in a 1,700 ft (520 m) core of rock drilled in Arizona show a pattern synchronized with Earth's eccentricity, and cores drilled in New England match it, going back 215 million years.
100,000-year issue Main article: Orbital inclination
The inclination of Earth's orbit drifts up and down relative to its present orbit. This three-dimensional movement is known as "precession of the ecliptic" or "planetary precession". Earth's current inclination relative to the invariable plane (the plane that represents the angular momentum of the Solar System—approximately the orbital plane of Jupiter) is 1.57°.[citation needed] Milankovitch did not study planetary precession. It was discovered more recently and measured, relative to Earth's orbit, to have a period of about 70,000 years. When measured independently of Earth's orbit, but relative to the invariable plane, however, precession has a period of about 100,000 years. This period is very similar to the 100,000-year eccentricity period. Both periods closely match the 100,000-year pattern of glacial events.
Angular momentum operator
Quantum mechanical operator related to rotational symmetry
In quantum mechanics, the angular momentum operator is one of several related operators analogous to classical angular momentum. The angular momentum operator plays a central role in the theory of atomic and molecular physics and other quantum problems involving rotational symmetry. Such an operator is applied to a mathematical representation of the physical state of a system and yields an angular momentum value if the state has a definite value for it. In both classical and quantum mechanical systems, angular momentum (together with linear momentum and energy) is one of the three fundamental properties of motion.
There are several angular momentum operators: total angular momentum (usually denoted J), orbital angular momentum (usually denoted L), and spin angular momentum (spin for short, usually denoted S). The term angular momentum operator can (confusingly) refer to either the total or the orbital angular momentum. Total angular momentum is always conserved, see Noether's theorem.
Angular momentum
Physical quantity
In physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational analog of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity—the total angular momentum of a closed system remains constant. Angular momentum has both a direction and a magnitude, and both are conserved. Bicycles and motorcycles, frisbees rifled bullets, and gyroscopes owe their useful properties to conservation of angular momentum. Conservation of angular momentum is also why hurricanes form spirals and neutron stars have high rotational rates. In general, conservation limits the possible motion of a system, but it does not uniquely determine it.
the origin.
Angular momentum is a vector quantity (more precisely, a pseudovector) that represents the product of a body's rotational inertia and rotational velocity (in radians/sec) about a particular axis. However, if the particle's trajectory lies in a single plane, it is sufficient to discard the vector nature of angular momentum, and treat it as a scalar (more precisely, a pseudoscalar). Angular momentum can be considered a rotational analog of linear momentum. Thus, where linear momentum p is proportional to mass m and linear speed v,
{\displaystyle p=mv,}p=mv,
angular momentum L is proportional to moment of inertia I and angular speed ω measured in radians per second.
{\displaystyle L=I\omega .}L=I\omega .
Unlike mass,
Rational number
Quotient of two integers
"Rationals" redirects here. For other uses, see Rational (disambiguation).
In mathematics, a rational number is a number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction
p
/
q
of two integers, a numerator p and a non-zero denominator q. For example,
−3
/
7
is a rational number, as is every integer (e.g. 5 =
5
/
1
). The set of all rational numbers, also referred to as "the rationals", the field of rationals or the field of rational numbers is usually denoted by a boldface Q (or blackboard bold {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} }\mathbb {Q} , Unicode U+1D410 𝐐 MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL Q or U+211A ℚ DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL Q); it was thus denoted in 1895 by Giuseppe Peano after quoziente, Italian for "quotient"
Irrational number
Number that is not a ratio of integers
In mathematics, the irrational numbers (from in- prefix assimilated to ir- (negative prefix, privative) + rational) are all the real numbers that are not rational numbers. That is, irrational numbers cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers. When the ratio of lengths of two line segments is an irrational number, the line segments are also described as being incommensurable, meaning that they share no "measure" in common, that is, there is no length ("the measure"), no matter how short, that could be used to express the lengths of both of the two given segments as integer multiples of itself.
Real number
Number representing a continuous quantity
For the real numbers used in descriptive set theory, see Baire space (set theory). For the computing datatype, see Floating-point number.
In mathematics, a real number is a value of a continuous quantity that can represent a distance along a line (or alternatively, a quantity that can be represented as an infinite decimal expansion). The adjective real in this context was introduced in the 17th century by René Descartes, who distinguished between real and imaginary roots of polynomials. The real numbers include all the rational numbers, such as the integer −5 and the fraction 4/3, and all the irrational numbers, such as {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}}{\sqrt {2}} (1.41421356..., the square root of 2, an irrational algebraic number). Included within the irrationals are the real transcendental numbers, such as π (3.14159265...). In addition to measuring distance, real numbers can be used to measure quantities such as time, mass, energy, velocity, and many more. The set of real numbers is denoted using the symbol R or {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }\mathbb {R} and is sometimes called "the reals".
Integer
Number in {..., –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, ...}
For computer representation, see Integer (computer science). For the generalization in algebraic number theory, see Algebraic integer.
An integer (from the Latin integer meaning "whole") is colloquially defined as a number that can be written without a fractional component. For example, 21, 4, 0, and −2048 are integers, while 9.75, 5+
1
/
2
, and √2 are not.
Magnetosonic wave
Type of magnetohydrodynamic wave
A magnetosonic wave, also called a magnetoacoustic wave, is a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) wave that is driven by thermal pressure, magnetic pressure, and magnetic tension. There are two types of magnetosonic waves, the fast magnetosonic wave and the slow magnetosonic wave. Both fast and slow magnetosonic waves are present in the solar corona providing an observational foundation for the technique for coronal plasma diagnostics, coronal seismology. certainly sounds like the molten salt reaction...there is no discussion of the chemical processes taking place around this theoretical magic stuff
boiling water more conductive than ice The electrolytic conductivity of ultra-high purity water increases as a function of temperature (T) due to the higher dissociation of H2O in H+ and OH− with T...meaning electricity is the direct result of the breakup of H2O into H+ and Oh- setting up a recombination with other free radicals in the next near beat...One of the functions of many types of multimeters is the measurement of resistance in ohms.
The ohm is defined as an electrical resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant potential difference of one volt, applied to these points, produces in the conductor a current of one ampere, the conductor not being the seat of any electromotive force.
{\displaystyle \Omega ={\dfrac {\text{V}}{\text{A}}}={\dfrac {1}{\text{S}}}={\dfrac {\text{W}}{{\text{A}}^{2}}}={\dfrac {{\text{V}}^{2}}{\text{W}}}={\dfrac {\text{s}}{\text{F}}}={\dfrac {\text{H}}{\text{s}}}={\dfrac {{\text{J}}{\cdot }{\text{s}}}{{\text{C}}^{2}}}={\dfrac {{\text{kg}}{\cdot }{\text{m}}^{2}}{{\text{s}}{\cdot }{\text{C}}^{2}}}={\dfrac {\text{J}}{{\text{s}}{\cdot }{\text{A}}^{2}}}={\dfrac {{\text{kg}}{\cdot }{\text{m}}^{2}}{{\text{s}}^{3}{\cdot }{\text{A}}^{2}}}}{\displaystyle \Omega ={\dfrac {\text{V}}{\text{A}}}={\dfrac {1}{\text{S}}}={\dfrac {\text{W}}{{\text{A}}^{2}}}={\dfrac {{\text{V}}^{2}}{\text{W}}}={\dfrac {\text{s}}{\text{F}}}={\dfrac {\text{H}}{\text{s}}}={\dfrac {{\text{J}}{\cdot }{\text{s}}}{{\text{C}}^{2}}}={\dfrac {{\text{kg}}{\cdot }{\text{m}}^{2}}{{\text{s}}{\cdot }{\text{C}}^{2}}}={\dfrac {\text{J}}{{\text{s}}{\cdot }{\text{A}}^{2}}}={\dfrac {{\text{kg}}{\cdot }{\text{m}}^{2}}{{\text{s}}^{3}{\cdot }{\text{A}}^{2}}}}
in which the following units appear: volt (V), ampere (A), siemens (S), watt (W), second (s), farad (F), henry (H), joule (J), coulomb (C), kilogram (kg), and metre (m).
Following the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, in which the ampere and the kilogram were redefined in terms of fundamental constants, the ohm is affected by a very small scaling in measurement.
In many cases the resistance of a conductor is approximately constant within a certain range of voltages, temperatures, and other parameters. These are called linear resistors. In other cases resistance varies, such as in the case of the thermistor, which exhibits a strong dependence of its resistance with temperature.
A vowel of the prefixed units kiloohm and megaohm is commonly omitted, producing kilohm and megohm.
In alternating current circuits, electrical impedance is also measured in ohms.
Conversions
The siemens (symbol: S) is the SI derived unit of electric conductance and admittance, also known as the mho (ohm spelled backwards, symbol is ℧); it is the reciprocal of resistance in ohms (Ω).
Power as a function of resistance
The power dissipated by a resistor may be calculated from its resistance, and the voltage or current involved. The formula is a combination of Ohm's law and Joule's law:
{\displaystyle P=V\cdot I={\frac {V^{2}}{R}}=I^{2}\cdot R}P=V\cdot I={\frac {V^{2}}{R}}=I^{2}\cdot R
where:
P is the power
R is the resistance
V is the voltage across the resistor
I is the current through the resistor
Legally speaking...A legal ohm, a reproducible standard, was defined by the international conference of electricians at Paris in 1884[citation needed] as the resistance of a mercury column of specified weight and 106 cm long; this was a compromise value between the B. A. unit (equivalent to 104.7 cm), the Siemens unit (100 cm by definition), and the CGS unit. Although called "legal", this standard was not adopted by any national legislation. The "international" ohm was recommended by unanimous resolution at the International Electrical Congress 1893 in Chicago. The unit was based upon the ohm equal to 109 units of resistance of the C.G.S. system of electromagnetic units. The international ohm is represented by the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current in a mercury column of constant cross-sectional area 106.3 cm long of mass 14.4521 grams and 0 °C. This definition became the basis for the legal definition of the ohm in several countries. In 1908, this definition was adopted by scientific representatives from several countries at the International Conference on Electric Units and Standards in London. The mercury column standard was maintained until the 1948 General Conference on Weights and Measures, at which the ohm was redefined in absolute terms instead of as an artifact standard.
By the end of the 19th century, units were well understood and consistent. Definitions would change with little effect on commercial uses of the units. Advances in metrology allowed definitions to be formulated with a high degree of precision and repeatability...The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow of electric current. Its reciprocal quantity is electrical conductance, measuring the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S) (formerly called 'mhos' and then represented by ℧).
The resistance of an object depends in large part on the material it is made of. Objects made of electrical insulators like rubber tend to have very high resistance and low conductivity, while objects made of electrical conductors like metals tend to have very low resistance and high conductivity. This relationship is quantified by resistivity or conductivity. The nature of a material is not the only factor in resistance and conductance, however; it also depends on the size and shape of an object because these properties are extensive rather than intensive. For example, a wire's resistance is higher if it is long and thin, and lower if it is short and thick. All objects resist electrical current, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.
The resistance R of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage V across it to current I through it, while the conductance G is the reciprocal: the ratio of the current through over the voltage across
R={\frac {V}{I}},\qquad G={\frac {I}{V}}={\frac {1}{R}}}
In a conductive material, the moving charged particles that constitute the electric current are called charge carriers. In metals, which make up the wires and other conductors in most electrical circuits, the positively charged atomic nuclei of the atoms are held in a fixed position, and the negatively charged electrons are the charge carriers, free to move about in the metal. In other materials, notably the semiconductors, the charge carriers can be positive or negative, depending on the dopant used. Positive and negative charge carriers may even be present at the same time, as happens in an electrolyte in an electrochemical cell.
A flow of positive charges gives the same electric current, and has the same effect in a circuit, as an equal flow of negative charges in the opposite direction. Since current can be the flow of either positive or negative charges, or both, a convention is needed for the direction of current that is independent of the type of charge carriers. The direction of conventional current is arbitrarily defined as the direction in which positive charges flow. Negatively charged carriers, such as the electrons (the charge carriers in metal wires and many other electronic circuit components), therefore flow in the opposite direction of conventional current flow in an electrical circuit.
Reference direction
A current in a wire or circuit element can flow in either of two directions. When defining a variable {\displaystyle I}I to represent the current, the direction representing positive current must be specified, usually by an arrow on the circuit schematic diagram.: 13 This is called the reference direction of the current {\displaystyle I}I. When analyzing electrical circuits, the actual direction of current through a specific circuit element is usually unknown until the analysis is completed. Consequently, the reference directions of currents are often assigned arbitrarily. When the circuit is solved, a negative value for the current implies the actual direction of current through that circuit element is opposite that of the chosen reference direction.: 29