The Gas in the ideal Gas law and other I deal ideas dealt from a marked deck

Earth Air Fire Water

Around 1862, while lecturing at King's College, Maxwell calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed of light. He considered this to be more than just a coincidence, commenting, "We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.^[78]

Working on the problem further, Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel the Aether at A speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments; using the data available at the time, Maxwell obtained a velocity of 310,740,000 metres per second (1.0195×10⁹ ft/s).^[119] In his 1865 paper "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field", Maxwell wrote, "The agreement of the results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance, and that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws".^[5]

Maxwell also introduced the concept of 

the electromagnetic field

 in comparison to 

force lines that Faraday described.^[126]

 By understanding the propagation of 

electromagnetism as a field 

Measurable at intervals

Maxwell could advance his work on light.

 At that time, Maxwell believed

 that the propagation of light required 

a medium for the waves, dubbed 

the luminiferous aether.^[126] 

Over time, the existence of such a medium, permeating all space and yet apparently undetectable by mechanical means, 

proved impossible to reconcile with experiments such as the Michelson–Morley experiment.^[127] 

Moreover, it seemed to require an absolute frame of reference in which the equations were valid, with the distasteful result that the equations changed form for a moving observer. 

These difficulties inspired Albert Einstein to 

formulate the theory of special relativity;

 in the process, Einstein dispensed with

 the requirement of The Idea of luminiferous aether.^[128]

His famous twenty equations, in their modern form of partial differential equations, first appeared in fully developed form in his textbook A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873.^[120] Most of this work was done by Maxwell at Glenlair during the period between holding his London post and his taking up the Cavendish chair.^[78] Oliver Heaviside reduced the complexity of Maxwell's theory down to four partial differential equations,^[121] known now collectively as Maxwell's Laws or Maxwell's equations. Although potentials became much less popular in the nineteenth century,^[122] the use of scalar and vector potentials is now standard in the solution of Maxwell's equations.^[123]

As Barrett and Grimes (1995) describe:^[124]

Maxwell expressed electromagnetism in the algebra of quaternions and made the electromagnetic potential the centerpiece of his theory. In 1881 Heaviside replaced the electromagnetic potential field by force fields as the centerpiece of electromagnetic theory. According to Heaviside, the electromagnetic potential field was arbitrary and needed to be "assassinated". (sic) A few years later there was a debate between Heaviside and [Peter Guthrie] Tate (sic) about the relative merits of vector analysis and quaternions. The result was the realization that there was no need for the greater physical insights provided by quaternions if the theory was purely local, and vector analysis became commonplace.

Maxwell was proved correct, and his quantitative connection between light and electromagnetism is considered one of the great accomplishments of 19th-century mathematical physics.^[125]

Animated plot of  ${\displaystyle r=\frac{p}{1-e\cos \theta }}$ by using Hyperbolae

where

β is the angle of rotation (in radians)

B is the magnetic flux density in the direction of propagation 

d is the length of the path  where the light and magnetic field interact

${\displaystyle \mathcal{V}}$ is the Verdet constant for the material. 

This empirical proportionality varies with wavelength and temperature^[9][10][11] 

and is tabulated for various materials.

A positive Verdet constant corresponds to 

L-rotation (CounterClockWise) 

when the direction of propagation is parallel 

to the magnetic field and

 to R-rotation (Clock~Wise) 

when the direction of propagation is an angle 

  between 90 and 180 degrees off parallel. 

Thus, if a ray of light passed through a material and

 reflected back through it, 

the rotation doubles.

Electromotive force

[edit]

The strength of the pile is expressed in terms of its electromotive force, or emf, given in volts. Alessandro Volta's theory of contact tension considered that the emf, which drives the electric current through a circuit containing a voltaic cell, occurs at the contact between the two metals. Volta did not consider the electrolyte, which was typically brine in his experiments, to be significant. However, chemists soon realized that water in the electrolyte was involved in the pile's chemical reactions, and led to the evolution of hydrogen gas from the copper or silver electrode.^{[4][19][20][21]}

Hydrogen is a chemical element; it has symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest element and, at standard conditions, is a gas of diatomic molecules with the formula H2, sometimes called dihydrogen,^[11] hydrogen gas, molecular hydrogen, or simply hydrogen. It is colorless, odorless,^[12] non-toxic, and highly combustible. Constituting about 75% of all normal matter, hydrogen is the most abundant chemical element in the universe.^[13] Stars, including the Sun, mainly consist of hydrogen in a plasma state, while on Earth, hydrogen is found in water, organic compounds, as dihydrogen, and in other molecular forms. The most common isotope of hydrogen (protium, ¹H) consists of one proton, one electron, and no neutrons.

The modern, atomistic understanding of a cell with zinc and copper electrodes separated by an electrolyte is the following. When the cell is providing an electrical current through an external circuit, the metallic zinc at

 

In A

Spherical cell with zinc and copper electrodes

A current will be concentrated

into alignment as 

compliments 

in Zinc

Compliment

Copper

Expanding Di electric

Storage Capacity as Amplitude Rises

While reducing the area consumed

as wavelengths align and polarize

along the length

relative to the radius

When the 

A cell is 

connected by 

an Area

composed of a current

carrying capacity

known as a capacitance

providing the path for  the flow of

 current through

terminals aligning direction

 an external circuit

is said to be created

  When Anode is separated 

by an electrolyte 

from Cathode

the following

Cycle of G

is said to

run:

When the A cell is providing an electrical current through an external circuit, the metallic zinc at

The surface of the anode is oxidized

The Oxygen in the solution 

is catalyzed by

the presence

of

salt

to Release Hydrogen

The anOdE dissolves 

releasing protons

into 

the electrolyte Solution

ready to bond with electrons

as the electrons coerced by oxygen to release

  the protons  release from the composite

and spin out and up from their

former center as 

they enter

the current flowing as

the MAgnetic Torque

along the path of current flowng

creating the flow and the curl in the 

solution

 as electrically charged ions (Zn²⁺),

 and two negatively charged electrons e−

behind in the metal as:

 

The  anode Excites oxidation

aka Incites the Creation of IONs

USing Oxygen as

the Catalyst: Zn    Zn²⁺ + 2 e−

This oxidation is called a reaction

by the chemically illiterate physician

 As zinc ions enter the electrolyte

as two hungry protons looking for some love

 two positively charged hydrogen ions (H⁺) 

freely floating around as the solution

form a chain from the electrolyte of the electrolyte

arranging the equation to allow the positive attractor where the powerful protons like to congregate to accept two electrons at the copper cathode surface, 

Resulting in the reduced reduction of the form to

the former and the ion

and for form an 

uncharged hydrogen Gas molecule (H₂):

Popularly known in the lysis crowd as 

cathode ray reduction the production of

  H_{2 From} 2 H⁺ + 2 e−

The

Production of a gas from a couple of protons and

a couple of electrons...

This reaction is re~actcively called re~duct~ion.

The pro~duct~ion of Hydrogen gas from

Water mixed with most metal s

 The electrons contributed by 

the former form of

 the copper to form

 the molecules of hydrogen 

re contributed to the current by an external wire

 or circuit that connects

 it s path to the zinc  

to the zinc.

 The hydrogen Gas molecules formed

 on the surface of the copper by 

the reduction reaction 

ultimately bubble away as hydrogen gas.